These documents were uncovered by Rebecca John as part of her investigation into the oil and gas industry’s early knowledge of climate science and its response to this knowledge.

Reported with links to documents via DeSmog on January 30, 2024 and November 12, 2024

New Evidence Reveals Fossil Fuel Industry Sponsored Climate Science in 1954

Revealed: Big Oil Told 70 Years Ago That Fossil Fuel Emissions Could Impact ‘Civilization’

And covered by Dharna Noor in the Guardian:
Big oil firms knew of dire effects of fossil fuels as early as 1950s, memos show

TOP DOCUMENTS

• November 23, 1953: Purpose of the Southern California Air Pollution Foundation, Agenda of first meeting, List of Trustees [Papers of Lee DuBridge, Caltech Archives]

Declaring itself an “independent, non-profit corporation,” the Air Pollution Foundation was established in November 1953 in the midst of the Los Angeles smog crisis to ensure that “every phase of air pollution shall be the object of careful study and constructive, remedial action.” Trustees included the presidents of Southern California Gas Company, Southern California Edison Company and Union Oil Company of California (now Chevron).

• November 15, 1954:  A PROPOSAL TO THE SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA AIR POLLUTION FOUNDATION FOR THE STUDY OF CARBON ISOTOPES IN THE ATMOSPHERE by Samuel Epstein. [Papers of Samuel Epstein, Caltech Archives]

“… One of the more interesting results obtained is a consistent increase of the C12 content in recent years. Since 1840 the carbon-isotope ratio (C12/C13) has increased in the trees so far investigated. This can be explained on the basis of a change in the carbon ratio in carbon dioxide atmosphere resulting from the burning  of the C12-enriched coal and petroleum … The possible consequences of a changing concentration of the CO2 in the atmosphere with reference to climate, rates of photosynthesis, and rates of equilibration with carbonate of the oceans may ultimately prove of considerable significance to civilization.”

In 1954 the Air Pollution Foundation sought a proposal from the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) for a carbon isotope study of air pollution particles to determine whether fossil fuels or backyard trash incinerators were responsible for LA’s carbon pollution. Responding to the request, Caltech’s Dr Samuel Epstein, associate professor of geochemistry, submitted a research proposal on November 15, 1954 outlining how recent scientific advances, applied to carbon dioxide samples, might inform researchers about the sources of pollution. 

However, as well as offering a potential contribution to the solution of the smog problem, Epstein’s proposal outlined how increasing atmospheric concentrations of CO2, caused by the burning of fossil fuels, might affect the Earth’s climate. “The concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere” was a matter of “well recognized importance to our civilization,” wrote Epstein, emphasizing that “the possible consequences of a changing concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere with reference to climate” may “ultimately prove of considerable significance to civilization.

Funding for the Caltech research was approved by the Air Pollution Foundation’s Trustees on November 16, 1954. The research would be primarily conducted by Charles David Keeling, then a young post-doctoral researcher at Caltech. Sponsored by the APF, Keeling carried out his earliest research into carbon dioxide taking samples across the western United States. Keeling’s findings would lead him to carry out a separate series of experiments from the top of Hawaiian volcano Mauna Loa resulting in the famous Keeling Curve – a visual depiction of rising atmospheric CO2 caused by the burning of fossil fuels. His work underpins our understanding of manmade climate change. This investigation reveals for the first time that his earliest CO2 research was funded by the oil and gas industry via the Air Pollution Foundation.

• March 1955 – APF First Technical Progress Report reprinting Caltech’s proposal in full including CO2 warning [Norman Brooks Papers, Caltech Archives]

Under the leadership of its first President, Lauren B. Hitchcock, the Air Pollution Foundation (APF) published its First Technical Progress Report. In line with its self-declared duty to “inform the public periodically concerning the nature and extent of air pollution,” the APF’s report printed Caltech’s research proposal in full, including the section containing Epstein’s warning that emissions from burning fossil fuels might change the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere with “considerable significance to civilization.”

Copies of this First Technical Progress Report were sent to all the Air Pollution Foundation’s trustees and contributors, which included the Western Oil & Gas Association (now known as the Western States Petroleum Association, WSPA) and its member companies such as Shell; General Petroleum and Humble Oil (now ExxonMobil); Richfield Oil (now BP); Sunray Oil (Sunoco); Tidewater (ConocoPhillips); Southern California Gas Company (SoCalGas); Southern California Edison; and Standard Oil of California, the Texas Company, Union Oil, and Western Gulf (all now Chevron).

• April 7, 1955 – “Personal & Confidential Memo to the Executive Committee of the Air Pollution Foundation; Subject: Meeting of Smoke and Fumes Committee, Western Oil and Gas Association” [Papers of Lee DuBridge, Caltech Archives]

This memo, authored by president of the Air Pollution Foundation, Lauren B. Hitchcock, describes a meeting between Hitchcock and leaders of the Smoke & Fumes Committee of the Western Oil & Gas Association (WOGA), now known Western States Petroleum Association, WSPA). Dated April 7, 1955, the memo unmasks the strategic motivations behind Big Oil’s sponsorship of air pollution research. 

Hitchcock’s memo reports that during the meeting, the high-level executives from General Petroleum (now ExxonMobil), Standard Oil of California (now Chevron) and Union Oil (now Chevron), criticized him for drawing attention to refinery emissions and for conducting “too broad a program of research.” Hitchcock also records that a senior WOGA official informed him that WOGA had been instrumental in establishing the Air Pollution Foundation and had funded the group on the understanding that it would be “protective,’ that Hitchcock would serve as “the research director for the oil industry” and the foundation should publish “findings which would be accepted as unbiased” where the oil industry’s findings were not seen to be trustworthy.

Since the 1950s the tactic of funding a third-party community front group to sponsor and publicize research aimed at downplaying or denying the harmful impacts of burning fossil fuels has become a key element of the oil industry’s PR playbook. In this way, the Air Pollution Foundation helped lay the strategic and organizational infrastructure for the industry’s later climate denial and delay.

• 1955 Air Pollution Foundation’s President Report [Lauren B. Hitchcock Papers, SUNY Buffalo University Archives] 

Published after WOGA’s intervention, this report states that “water and carbon dioxide are considered to be innocuous” and makes no reference to the potential dangers of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions as told to the Foundation by Caltech’s Samuel Epstein.

However, the President’s Report of 1955 also states that copies of all the APF’s reports had been sent to all its trustees and contributors. The  APF’s Trustees are listed in the report which shows the oil and gas industry’s representation on important APF Committees. For example, the presidents of Union Oil and SoCalGas were members of the Executive Committee; SoCalGas’s president was also the chairman of the APF’s Public Information Committee and a member of the APF’s Research Committee. Additionally, members of the APF’s new Technical Advisory Committee, created by the APF immediately after WOGA’s April 1955 intervention, contained representatives from Standard Oil of California (now Chevron) and the  American Petroleum Institute, the Automobile Manufacturers’ Association, and Richfield Oil (now BP).

• The Concentration and Isotopic Composition of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide, c. 1956, Charles D. Keeling [Papers of Charles D. Keeling, UCSD Library]

This paper contains the data Keeling’ compiled using the Air Pollution Foundation’s research grant between 1954 and 1956. Charts show the amount of CO2 in parts per million (ppm) and also the isotopic ratios of the carbon isotopes.

“The factors which control the concentration and isotopic composition of carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere have been studied with the view of predicting the effect of terrestrial plants, of surface ocean water, and of the burning of coal and petroleum on atmospheric carbon dioxide.”

Keeling discovered that everywhere he went the afternoon air seemed always to have nearly the same amount of CO2 – about 310 ppm. Based on existing scientific literature, Keeling had expected daytime concentrations to vary. Instead, he found that a concentration of 310 ppm of CO2 seemed to prevail over large regions of the northern hemisphere. In addition to this, Keeling noted that the carbon isotopic ratios in the afternoon were also “all about the same,” indicating that a uniform proportion of the CO2 was coming from fossil fuels. If CO2 concentrations were similar across the globe, Keeling recognized that it might be possible, using continuous measurements over an extended period of time, to estimate how much CO2 produced by burning fossil fuels was being absorbed by natural carbon sinks (forests, oceans) and how much was being emitted into the earth’s atmosphere, contributing to a “greenhouse” effect.

Keeling secured federal sponsorship for his later work from the U.S. Weather Bureau and began measuring atmospheric CO2 on Mauna Loa. By 1967 his measurements revealed a rising trend of CO2 increasing year on year from approximately 313 ppm in 1957 to 320 ppm in 1967. Caused primarily by the burning of fossil fuels, the depiction of this trend would come to be known as the Keeling Curve.

LIST OF DOCUMENTS IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER

• November 23, 1953: Purpose of the Southern California Air Pollution Foundation, Agenda of first meeting, List of Trustees [Papers of Lee DuBridge, Caltech Archives]

• September 22, 1954: Minutes Of Research Committee Of The Board Of Trustees – APF trying to place a study of C14 … Cal Tech is preparing a proposal [Papers of Lee DuBridge, Caltech Archives]

• November 10, 1954: List of Contributors to APF (individual oil companies shown) [Lauren B. Hitchcock Papers, SUNY Buffalo Archives)

• November 15, 1954: Air Pollution Foundation Correspondence [Papers of Samuel Epstein, Caltech Archives]

• Letter to the members of the Southern California Air Pollution Foundation from A.H. Walter Contract Administrator, 15 November 1954; Attn: Dr. Nicholas Rinzetti [sic] (Renzetti – Senior Physicist at the Air Pollution Foundation); Subject: Proposal for “Early Investigations of Carbon Isotopes.”

• A PROPOSAL TO THE SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA AIR POLLUTION FOUNDATION FOR THE STUDY OF CARBON ISOTOPES IN THE ATMOSPHERE by Samuel Epstein

“… One of the more interesting results obtained is a consistent increase of the C12 content in recent years. Since 1840 the carbon-isotope ratio (C12/C13) has increased in the trees so far investigated. This can be explained on the basis of a change in the carbon ratio in carbon dioxide atmosphere resulting from the burning  of the C12-enriched coal and petroleum … The possible consequences of a changing concentration of the CO2 in the atmosphere with reference to climate, rates of photosynthesis, and rates of equilibration with carbonate of the oceans may ultimately prove of considerable significance to civilization.”

“Proposal: From the above it is clear that a thorough investigation of the distribution of the isotopes of carbon in the atmosphere is desirable and of particular importance in connection with isotope studies pertaining to marine and terrestrial photosynthesis to studies of carbonates, and with respect to changes in the atmosphere. Comparison of atmospheric samples gathered over the ocean, over mountain areas, and from industrial localities similar to the Los Angeles Basin is desirable. The relationship between the C12/C13 ratio in atmospheric carbon dioxide and in the air polutant (sic), the effect of industrial activity, elevation, geographic location, and fluctuations in weather and air currents on these ratios, and the isotopic composition of petroleums and plant materials would be some of the factors worth investigating. Such a study would be important to geochemistry and should be relevant to the smog problem of the Los Angeles Basin.”

“Personnel: Since the proposed investigations are of considerable complexity and their contribution to the solution of the smog problem not assured at present, it is considered best to build up initially only a small group of workers. For this reason, request for funds are limited to support one full time research worker (either post-doctoral fellow or an experienced research assistant) plus limited addition assistance from a part-time graduate student or part-time technician. The project would be under the general supervision of Professors Brown and Epstein, with assistance from Charles McKinney, Senior Research Fellow.”

1. Budget showing Total requested $13,814 submitted and signed by Samuel Epstein, Associate Professor
2. 1 December 1954, Letter to the members of the Southern California Air Pollution Foundation, Attn: Dr Nicholas Renzetti, Subject: Research Agreement: “Early Investigations of Carbon Isotopes” (Dr Samuel Epstein) – refers to enclosure of the agreement between Caltech and the Southern California Air Pollution Foundation dated 1 December 1954. 
3. Letter from R. G. Gilmore, Assistant Comptroller Caltech, to the Southern California Air Pollution Foundation, attn: Dr Nicholas Renzetti enclosing statement of expenditure through November 30, 1955 (“as provided for in the agreement entered into December 1, 195”)
4. California Institute of Technology, Southern California Air Pollution Foundation, Statement of Operations For the Twelve Months Ended November 30, 1955. Statement shows total expenditure on “Salaries and wages;” “Supplies and expenses;” and “Allowance for indirect costs” of $2,156.22. Unexpended balance: $11,657.78 
5. Informal Report on research project from Dr. Samuel Epstein (Associate Professor, Geochemistry, Caltech) to Dr. N. A. Renzetti (senior physicist, Air Pollution Foundation) October 12, 1956

Dear Dr. Renzetti: Enclosed please find an informal report on the research project “The Variation in the Concentration and Isotopic Composition of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide” prepared by Charles D. Keeling. For the past several years we have used the grant from the Air Pollution Foundation to support in part the above research. As this informal report and the report of last year show, we now have a good idea of how the concentration and the isotopic composition of carbon dioxide vary in different types of localities … The possibility of using such changes in the ratio of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere as an index to relative contribution of industrial activity to the gaseous phase of the atmosphere may be worth while pursuing in more detail … We feel that such a survey could not be done here at present. In general, this project so far has obtained important and fundamental data for interpreting the record of C13/C12 ratios of terrestrial plants, and it contributes to the overall evaluation of the C13/C12 variation in the carbon cycle. A detailed paper for publication is being prepared by Charles D. Keeling, and a copy of it will be forwarded to the foundation as a final report on this research. I should like to ask permission to spend the remaining $9000 for the construction of a mass spectrometer for determining the variation in HD/H2 ratio.”

• Letter from N. A. Renzetti, Senior Physicist, Air Pollution Foundation, October 16, 1956 to Professor Samuel Epstein, Caltech. [Names of Trustees printed on APF paper]

“Dear Professor Epstein: We have your letter of 12 October outlining the results of the carbon and oxygen isotope studies of carbon dioxide in the LA atmosphere, supported in part by a grant from this Foundation. We understand that further basic research on carbon and oxygen isotopes of possible utility to the LA smog problem does not lie within the interest or scope of your activity. However, in view of such work, you propose to extend your activity to the area of hydrogen isotopes in atmospheres. This Foundation has an interest in such work and hereby authorizes the increase in scope of the original grant to cover this research without increase of funds from us. We shall be pleased to receive such reports and data as become available which bear on the LA atmosphere.”

• November 16, 1954 – “Background For Twelve-Month Research Program” [Air Pollution Foundation Press Release – showing Caltech Isotope study] (US National Archives & Records Administration, Air Pollution Division 1954-1958)

“Fundamental Research in Physics, Meteorology and Chemistry:  Study of Carbon Isotopes In L.A. Atmosphere $5000; In General $10,000”

“We need more basic scientific knowledge bearing directly on air pollution. If we had the answers which these projects seek now, we would be in a very much better position to diagnose and prescribe.”

• November 16, 1954 – “Special Meeting of Board of Trustees, November 16, 1954” [Papers of Lee DuBridge, Caltech Archives]

This records WOGA presenting Foundation with a check for $200,000. Recommended projects for 1955 (incl. Isotope study at Caltech) approved by Trustees (Banks of SoCaLGas and Mullendore of Southern California Edison present).

• December 21, 1954 – “Special Meeting of Board of Trustees”

Minutes of Nov 16 meeting with attachment of projects approved by Trustees (incl Banks, Taylor, Mullendore) [Papers of Lee DuBridge, Caltech Archives]

• December 1954, Engineering and Science (Caltech Magazine)

“RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: 

Isotopic chemistry – the measurement of the relative abundance of different isotopes of an element – is opening a most powerful tool for many purposes. Thus, it appears that in fossil fuels – coal and petroleum – the ratio of the carbon isotope C12 to the carbon isotope C13 is larger than in present day living plants. However, a study of the C12/C13 ratios within successive tree-rings of individual living trees has shown that this ratio is larger in the outer rings. Apparently the burning of fossil fuels in homes and industry has increased the carbon dioxide content of the air and also the C12/C13 ratio during the past 100 years, and trees and other plants which absorb carbon dioxide indicate this changing carbon content.  This is but one example of how a new technique yields new information about the earth’s history.”

• March 1955 – APF First Technical Progress Report reprinting Caltech’s proposal in full including CO2 warning [Norman Brooks Papers, Caltech Archives]

• April 7, 1955 – Hitchcock memo outlining his meeting with WOGA at California Club. “Personal & Confidential Memo to the Executive Committee of the Air Pollution Foundation; Subject: Meeting of Smoke and Fumes Committee, Western Oil and Gas Association” [Papers of Lee DuBridge, Caltech Archives]

• April 12, 1955 – Memorandum To: W.L. Stewart, Jr (WOGA / API / Union Oil).; From: Vance N. Jenkins (Union Oil, API); Subject: Air Pollution Foundation Program [here Jenkins critiques the Air Pollution Foundation’s research program only recommending its PR function] plus Trustee minutes marking that Jenkins’ comments were submitted to the APF via Reese H. Taylor (president of Union Oil) [Papers of Lee DuBridge, Caltech Archives]

• April 13, 1955 – Minutes of Special Meeting of APF Executive Committee of the Board of Trustees at which the establishment of a scientific sub-committee (with technical representatives from WOGA, API) to advise the Research Committee on technical matters was proposed. WOGA’s Stewart is shown as participating at the meeting. [Papers of Lee DuBridge, Caltech Archives]

• June 6, 1955: Letter from W. L. Faith (APF VP and Chief Engineer) to Raymond B. Allen (Chancellor, UCLA and APF Trustee) enclosing list of “the important air pollution research projects currently being carried out by the Foundation” and motivation for Caltech Isotope study [Papers of Lee DuBridge, Caltech Archives]

• APF 1955 Campaign Progress Report – Oil Companies $200,000 largest contributor to APF’s annual funding [Papers of Lee DuBridge, Caltech Archives]

• June 28, 1955, Air Pollution Foundation Memo – “Continuation of carbon isotope studies. This is currently being carried out at Caltech with APF funds. It is hoped that NSF will underwrite this project in the future.”

• July 1, 1955 – Minutes APF Research Committee Meeting confirming appt of Technical Advisory Committee (API, Richfield Oil and Automobile Manufacturers Association reps included) [Papers of Lee DuBridge, Caltech Archives]

• November 1, 1955 – APF Second Technical Progress Report: “Water and carbon dioxide are considered to be innocuous” [Norman Brooks Papers, Caltech Archives]

• 1955 Air Pollution Foundation’s President Report [Lauren B. Hitchcock Papers, SUNY Buffalo University Archives] – stating that copies of all reports had been sent to trustees and contributors … “water and carbon dioxide are considered to be innocuous” – also showing members of Executive Committee (Union Oil, SoCalGas); Public Information Committee (SoCalGas – chairman); Research Committee (SoCalGas); Technical Advisory Committee (Std Oil CA + API, AMA, Richfield Oil)

Plus “Statement of Policy”  

“Organization of the Foundation: The Board of Trustees of the Foundation is composed of business, professional, and industrial leaders with records of conspicuous public service. About one-third are representatives of industrial enterprises which are or may be contributors in some degree to air pollution.

The principal reason for their membership on the Board, in addition to their recognized standing in the community, is to make certain that they will be parties to all facts and evidence brought to light on the problem so that they and their colleagues in like enterprises can continue to devote their best efforts toward the abatement of air pollution.”

• December 23, 1955 – LA Times article listing WOGA directors and company affiliations: 

• The Concentration and Isotopic Composition of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide, c. 1956, Charles D. Keeling [Papers of Charles D. Keeling, UCSD Library]

• September 19, 1956, Letter of resignation from Hitchcock to Lee DuBridge [Papers of Lee DuBridge, Caltech Archives]

• 1956 – APF President’s Report 1956  [California State Library]

“A Foundation project placed at Caltech early in 1955 under the direction of Professor Samuel Epstein in the Division of Geological Sciences reveals (1) that CO2 in our LA atmosphere increases mainly as a direct result of combustion and not the respiratory processes of growing plants, and (2) that approximately two-thirds of the CO2 is traceable to the combustion of petroleum products … In other words, approximately two-thirds of the gaseous combustion pollutants in our air come from our use of fuel oil, gasoline, or gas, and the remainder from burning rubbish.”

No mention of potential impact on atmospheric levels of CO2 or possible implications for Earth’s climate

• 1958 – Annual Report 1958 “During the second phase of basic research (1957-1958), all work has been aimed at auto exhaust …” [California State Library]

• November 1958 National Conference on Air Pollution in Washington, D.C., Shell executive Charles A. Jones, a WSPA and API air pollution expert who had formerly served on the APF’s Technical Advisory Sub-Committee, publicly described CO2 as “harmless.”

• November 1960 – The Air Pollution Problem: An Appraisal (no mention of CO2 – instead commends industry for spending money on research, more research needed, laws / pollution controls not necessary, economic costs must be factored in, the public need to be told the facts … [California State Library]

• Feb 20, 1961 – Oil and Gas Journal stating WSPA’s total contribution was $1,275, 000 between 1954-1960

• April 1, 1961 – APF Final Report – shows how APF research was used to lobby against air pollution regulations also full of industry talking points eg hysterical air pollution compaigners, economic cost/benefit arguments ,more research necessary, no controls on stationary sources … etc

The report states that in November, 1958, the U.S. PHS sponsored a National Conference on Air Pollution in Washington, D.C. According to the APF’s Final Report, the purpose of the conference was to assess the atmospheric pollution problem in the United States in all its social, political, and scientific aspects. “The proceedings of the conference were published … it still serves as an excellent resume of the state of our knowledge of air pollution matters as of that date.” [It was at this conference that the Executive Secretary of the American Petroleum Institute’s Smoke & Fumes Committee, Shell executive Charles A. Jones described CO2 as “harmless.”

This report also contains the full list of CONTRIBUTORS TO AIR POLLUTION FOUNDATION(The nuumbers in parentheses refer to the number of years a contribution was made). It is a veritable ‘who’s who’ of powerful U.S. corporations e.g. WOGA members but also, DuPont, Ethyl Corp Fluor Corp, Lockheed, Bank of America, United Air Lines, Union Carbide, U.S. Steel etc

• November 13, 1961: Report of API Advisory Committee to API Air and Water Conservation Committee – “defensive data” mentions that Air Pollution Foundation will disband.

Other Documents 

Selected Newspaper reports containing details of the Air Pollution Foundation’s activities and personnel

November 7, 1953, LA Times – “Foundation Set Up For War On Smog” (Directors -listed as Raymond B. Allen, UCLA; F. M. Banks, pres SOCAL; Arnold Beckman, pres Beckman scientific instruments; Walter Braunschweiger, exec VP Bank of America; Edward Carter pres of The Broadway; Lee DuBridge, pres Caltech; Fred D. Fagg, Jr, pres of SC; Roy M. Hagen, pres LA Chamber of Commerce; Harvey Rudd, industrialist; Fred Outman, Gladding McBean & Co.; Alden Roach, Western Consolidated Steel, Stephen Royce, Huntington Hotel; James F.  Shelton, Security First National Bank of LA, Reese H. Taylor, pres Union Oil Co.; P J Winnett, chairman of the board of Bullock’s.”

November 15, 1954, Citizen News – “Oil and auto companies, banks and industries have been contributors to the foundation, which will celebrate its first anniversary at a dinner tomorrow night at the Ambassador.”

August 12, 1955, Pasadena Independent – “Air Pollution Foundation Appoints 7 as Advisors: The Air Pollution Foundation yesterday announced appointment of a technical advisory committee of seven men, “with broad scientific experience and knowledge in air pollution, which will advise the foundation’s board of trustees on research projects.” … Committee Members: Dr William A. Claussen of San Francisco, executive secretary of the Smoke and Fumes Committee of the American Petroleum Institute. Charles M. Heinen of Detroit, vice chairman of the Vehicle Combustion Products Subcommittee of the Automobile Manufacturers Assn. Dr John T. Middleton of Riverside, professor of plant pathology of the University of California, Riverside. Dr. Lawrence M. Richards of Los Angeles, Richfield Oil Corporation scientist, formerly director of air pollution research at Stanford Research Institute.”

1950s Air Pollution Foundation Documents

 [US National Archives and Records Administration; RG90 Records of the Public Health Service, Air Pollution Division 1954-1958]

• June 16, 1958 Letter from W. L. Faith, Managing Director of the APF to Surgeon General regarding Faith’s statements proposing cuts (of $650,000) to the LA Air Pollution Control District’s budget.

• September 10, 1956 Air Pollution Foundation News Release describing collaborative research efforts with API to combat smog (“Compound X”)

• August 24, 1956 Air Pollution Foundation Newsletter – mentions APF’s retention of James W. Frick, a “research psychologist,” in its study of “eye irritation in the atmosphere.” Frick specialized in “psychometry, the branch of psychology dealing with measurement of personality and behavior.” This has parallels with the tobacco industry’s attempt (led by Hans Selye as  of 1958) to undermine the causal link between smoking and cancer & cardiovascular illness and to argue these were instead symptoms of psychological personality types.  The newsletter also announces 41 new corporate contributors to the APF since May 1955. New fossil fuel industry-linked contributors to APF included: Baker Oil Tools Inc, James H. Cannon Foundation, Hydril Co, Earle M. Jorgensen Company (steel),  Metropolitan Coach Lines, Pacific Airmotive Corp, Universal Consolidated Oil Company, and the Western Geophysical Company. [Universal Consolidated Oil Company later became part of Chevron.]
• May 7, 1956 Air Pollution Foundation News Release: Auto Industry Increases Support for Foundation Smog Research to $125,000. “The grant … brings to $280,000 the total financial support the Foundation has received from auto manufacturers during the past three years.” Lists 18 automotive companies funding the Air Pollution Foundation:” AMC, Checker Cab, Chrysler, Diamond T. Motors, Divco, Duplex Truck, Flxible, Ford, GM, International Harvester, Mack, Peterbilt, Twin Coach Co, Reo Motors, Studebaker-Packard, Walter Motor Truck, The White Motor Company, Willys Motors, Inc. – Kaiser Motors Corp.”

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